Calling Prolog from Foreign Languages

When you define Prolog clauses for global predicates  as being of foreign language, those predicates may be called from foreign languages. They will have parameter access and entry and exit code, including register preservation, as for the language specified.

Example:predicate called from .pro in C language

/* Program hello_p.pro */

global predicates

char prohello_msg(string) - (i) language c

hello_c - language c

clauses

prohello_msg(S,C) :-

write(S," (press any key)"), readchar(C).

goal

prohello_msg("Hello from  Prolog"),

hello_c.

The global predicate prohello_msg is now accessible from C and can be called just like any other C function:

Multiset data structure implementation in java

Multiset  is a generalized version set structure.Similar to set, multiset only stores data values without  guarantee of any particular ordering of its contents. On the other hand, it allows storing of multiple items with the same value (ie. supports non-unique keys).

It can be implemented using list but for optimal result i.e O(1) hash table structure should be used. Otherwise it  takes steps, where is number of distinct elements stored.

Source Code (JAVA)
01. /**

02.* Multiset implemented using two lists (list of values, list of occurrences)

03.* @author Pavel Micka

04.* @param <ENTITY> type parameter of the contained value

05.*/

06.public class Multiset<VALUE> {

07. 

08.private List<VALUE> values;

09.private List<Integer> occurences;

10. 

set data structure implementation in java

Set refers an abstract data structure used for storing data elements. Analogy with the mathematical term set, it does not guarantee any particular order of the stored elements and contains every value at most once (i.e. contains only unique values).

Similarly we can define multiset (bag) – a set, which may contain each value more than once. we can implement disjoint,union and difference of these set like in set theory of mathematics.

Source Code(JAVA)

/**
 * Set implemented as a list (using ArrayList)
 * @author Pavel Micka
 * @param <ENTITY> Type parameter of the contained value
 */
public class Set<ENTITY> {
    private List<ENTITY> list;
    /**
     * Constructor
     * @param initialCapacity initial capacity of the underlying ArrayList
     */
    public Set(int initialCapacity){
        list = new ArrayList<ENTITY>(initialCapacity);
    }

Prune and Search Alogrithm and implemetation in java

Prune and search is a method for finding an optimal value by iteratively dividing a search space into two parts – the promising one, which contains the optimal value and is recursively searched and the second part without optimal value, which is pruned (thrown away). This paradigm is very similar to well know divide and conquer algorithms.




* Prune and search

* @param array array to be searched in

* @param index order of the searched value (indexed starting at 0)

.* @param left first elemenent, which can be touched

* @param right first element, which cant be touched

* @return n-th largest value

*/

public static int pruneAndSearch(int[] array, int index, int left, int right) {

int boundary = left;

for (int i = left + 1; i < right; i++) {

if (array[i] > array[left]) {

 //place after the pivot every value, which is larger than the pivot

swap(array, i, ++boundary);

}

}

Interpolation Search implementation in java

The interpolation search is an improvement of the binary search for instances, where the values in the array are ordered and uniformly distributed.

The difference between the binary and the interpolation sort is that the binary search always splits the the array in half and inspects the middle element. Interpolation search calculates a position , where the value should be placed in accordance to the distribution of values a splits the array at . If the array contains numbers and we are looking for 9 the binary search needs three steps – split at 5, split at 8, split at 9 (found). The interpolation search calculates the probable position (index 9) and immediately finds the value. The expected complexity of the interpolation search in .




/* Interpolation search

* @param array array with uniformly distributed values in ascending order

* @param value searched value

* @param from first index that might be touched

* @param to last index that might be touched

* @return index index of the searched value in the array, -1 if not found

*/

public static int interpolationSearch(int[] array, int value, int from, int to){

if(array[from] == value) return from;

else if(from == to || array[from] ==  array[to]) return -1; //not found

//probable position of the searched value

int index = from + ((to - from)/(array[to] - array[from])) * (value - array[from]);

if(array[index] == value) return index;//found

//continue in the right part of the array

else if(array[index] < value) return interpolationSearch(array, value, index + 1, to);

//continue in the left part of the array

else return interpolationSearch(array, value, from, index - 1);

}

Depth First Search Algorithm and implementation in c++

DFS is the basic tree search technique in which goal,data is searched by moving downward until a leaf,end node, is reached.Then it backtrack and repeat the moving down to leaf process.This process is repeated until the searching data is found.

Algorithm

An algorithm for the depth – first search is the same as that for breadth first search except in the ordering of the nodes.

1. Place the starting node s on the top of the stack.
2. If the stack is empty, return failure and stop.
3. If the element on the stack is goal node g, return success and stop. Otherwise,
4. Remove and expand the first element , and place the children at the top of the stack.
5. Return to step 2.
    
   #include <iostream>

   #include <ctime>

   #include <malloc.h>

   using namespace std;

   struct node{

       int info;

       struct node *next;

   };

    

Breadth-First Search Algorithm and implementation in c++

BFS is most useful searching technique in database.In this technique,form the tree of data, corresponding child nodes of current state node is selected first during the searching process.Then in next step the childrens' of these selected child nodes will be searched.In this way exploring all nodes at a given depth before proceeding to the next level this searching method is implemented.

Algorithm

BFS uses a queue structure to hold all generate but still unexplored nodes. The order in which nodes are placed on the queue for removal and exploration determines the type of search. The BFS algorithm proceeds as follows.

1. Place the starting node s on the queue.
2. If the queue is empty, return failure and stop.
3. If the first element on the queue is a goal node g, return success and stop Otherwise,
4. Remove and expand the first element from the queue and place all the children at the end of the queue in any order.
5. Return to step 2.
   Source Code 
   #include <iostream>

   #include <ctime>

   using namespace std;

   struct node {

       int info;

       node *next;

   };

   
   

Monkey- Banana Problem in Prolog

Monkey-Banana Problem is the famous problem in AI. Where there is a room containing a monkey, a chair, and bananas that have been hung from the center of the ceiling of the room; out of reach from monkey. If the monkey is cleaver enough, he can reach the bananas by placing the chair directly below the bananas and climbing on the top of the chair.

Now the problem is to use FOPL to represent this monkey-banana problem and prove that monkey can reach the bananas.

The program is given below. Before running the program, think carefully what are the essential objects of the problem and how should them be arranged in predicate logic. 

PREDICATES

in_room(symbol)

dexterous(symbol)

tall(symbol)

can_move(symbol,symbol,symbol)

can_reach(symbol,symbol)

get_on(symbol,symbol)

can_climb(symbol,symbol)

close(symbol,symbol)

under(symbol,symbol)

can_climb(symbol,symbol)

 

Class Diagram for Software Design

INTRODUCTION

 CLASS DIAGRAM

•       A class diagram shows the existence of classes and their relationships in the logical view of a system

•       UML modeling elements in class diagrams are:

–      Classes, their structure and behavior.

–      relationships components among the classes like association, aggregation, composition, dependency and inheritance

–      Multiplicity and navigation indicators

–      Role names or labels.

Basic two types  of classes

Concrete classes

•       A concrete class is a class that is instantiable;  that is it can have different instances.

•       Only concrete classes may be leaf classes in the inheritance tree.

Abstract classes

•        is a class that has no direct instance but whose descendants classes have direct instances.

•       can define the protocol for an operation without supplying a corresponding method we call this as an abstract operation.

operation defines the form of operation, for which each concrete subclass should provide its own implementation

Types of Relationships between classes

•       Association

•       Aggregation

•       Composition

•       Inheritance

•       Dependency

•       Instantiation

FOPL and Prolog In AI part 04

Introduction

First Order Predicate Logic (FOPL) is a generalisation of Propositional Logic. Logic Programs are written in a sub-language of FOPL and therefore derive their meaning and formal properties from it.

FOPL has two major extensions over Propositional Logic:

1. Propositions are renamed "predicates" and may possess an internal structure. In fact the predicates of FOPL have precisely the same syntactic structure as they have in Prolog - i.e. a predicate name with terms as arguments, each term being aa

-constant,

-variable, or

-funcion with term(s) as argument(s).

2. Variables must be quantified by either

A meaning "for all" or

E " "there exists"

e.g Ex P(x) means "some unspecified constant has property P". Each quantifier has a SCOPE which is defined as the textual area in which it binds occurrences of its variable. This scope is usually delimited by brackets, unless it is obvious as in the example above.